The role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in supporting socio-cultural, political, ecological, and economic aspects of rural livelihoods is well documented globally. Recent estimates suggest that up to 5.8 billion people worldwide use NTFPs in some form, with about half residing in rural areas of the Global South. The literature presents mixed views on how NTFPs contribute to poverty alleviation, with some studies suggesting that reliance on these resources may trap communities in cycles of poverty. Challenges to the sustainability of NTFPs include forest degradation due to overharvesting, lack of regulations, market barriers, and limited external support. As rural communities increasingly rely on NTFP markets, it is essential to understand how social factors and socio-ecological interactions influence resource management while promoting sustainable practices. However, climate change and excessive resource extraction are placing growing pressure on forest ecosystems, increasing vulnerabilities for forest-dependent populations.
Chirpine (Pinus roxburghii), a longleaf Indian pine, is the most commonly tapped pine species in several countries, including Nepal, due to its high resin yield. Resin is a valuable raw material used across industries such as paper, chemicals, and biorefineries, with applications ranging from adhesives to detergents. Chirpine forests dominate the subtropical pine ecosystem in the Indo-Pacific region and are commonly found in Nepal’s mid-hills, covering approximately 8.45% of the country’s total forest area. These forests have been intensively managed for resin production and timber supply, along with providing ecosystem services like wildlife habitat and carbon sequestration.
About 29% of Nepal’s national forests, primarily in the mid-hills, are managed under the community forestry (CF) program, with nearly 75% of these forests located in the middle hills. These forests provide essential goods and services that directly impact the livelihoods of millions of rural people, contributing significantly to poverty reduction. The Forest Policy 2015 and Forest Sector Strategy 2016 emphasized forest-based enterprises as key to improving livelihoods, with NTFPs playing a crucial role in supplementing rural income. Commercial collection and harvesting of NTFPs engage up to 80% of households in rural areas and support up to 50% of household income. Revenue from community forestry user groups (CFUGs) is often used to fund community development initiatives, including skill-building workshops, training, and income-generating activities.
However, due to high resin demand, pine trees are often over-tapped without considering tree conditions, stand structure, or climatic stress. Although Nepal introduced resin tapping guidelines in 2007, poor implementation and lack of administrative monitoring have led to negative consequences for Chirpine forests. Excessive tapping threatens pine species and the livelihoods of communities dependent on them. This socio-ecological interaction poses a major challenge to sustainable forest management in a country where one-third of the population lives a subsistence lifestyle and depends on natural resources.
This study aimed to assess the social impacts of resin tapping in Chirpine forests on rural socio-ecological dynamics in Nepal’s mid-hills. Using a sample of 302 forest users from 20 CFUGs across three far-western districts, the research explored both positive and negative perceptions of resin tapping. Based on local users’ perspectives, the study documented both socio-economic benefits and adverse impacts on the socio-ecological system. Understanding these perspectives is essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability of Chirpine forests and their ecological and economic functions. Assessments of how local communities manage natural resources for NTFPs are also necessary to identify policy revisions that reflect changing community views, which are vital for sustaining livelihoods and promoting sustainable resource management.
The study was guided by a socio-environmental framework focusing on forest-based human-ecological interactions in Nepal. It considered socio-ecological systems and land use change sciences to evaluate the sustainability of NTFP use. Forests and other natural resources are essential for rural livelihoods, with most households relying on them for fuelwood, fodder, and leaf litter. NTFPs are a significant source of income, with up to 80% of rural households involved in their collection and commercialization. Two interconnected human and ecological systems influence each other, shaping forest sustainability and altering the Chirpine-based ecosystem through natural, social, and economic factors. Community-based forest management models promote NTFP use to improve livelihoods, but improper tapping practices, such as using high concentrations of stimulants to increase resin yield, have negatively affected tree physiology, leading to mortality and increased fire risk. Given the changing socio-demographic, cultural, and climatic conditions in Nepal’s mid-hills, this framework explores the perceived impacts, challenges, preferences, and opportunities within the Chirpine-based socio-ecological system.
The study focused on three far-western districts—Kailali, Doti, and Dadeldhura—where resin tapping has been concentrated for decades. These districts were selected based on three criteria: (1) they have forests as the main land use with significant Chirpine coverage; (2) resin tapping is widely practiced, with the first turpentine industry established in 1986; and (3) they host large populations of marginalized and rural communities who are members of CFUGs. The elevation gradient of Chirpine forests ranges from 1000 to 2200 meters, representing sub-tropical climates and varying soil types and rainfall patterns. According to forest office records, only 143 out of 1246 CFUGs in the region are actively involved in resin tapping, with about 25% of CFUGs in Dadeldhura district participating in the activity.
A survey instrument was developed based on the theoretical framework to evaluate the social impacts of resin tapping and Chirpine forest management. The survey included both closed- and open-ended questions to capture respondents’ perceptions of forest conditions, management practices, and challenges under changing socio-demographic, economic, and climatic conditions. The survey was translated into Nepali and pre-tested before being administered in the field. Due to the non-random distribution of resin-tapping communities, a purposive snowball sampling approach was used. A total of 302 responses were collected from 20 CFUGs, with households selected based on their involvement in resin tapping.
The analysis was framed using the social exchange theory, which suggests that people develop attitudes toward an activity based on perceived costs and benefits. Structural equation modeling was employed to examine relationships between latent constructs and observed variables. The results showed that the average age of respondents was 42 years, with 55% being male. About one-fourth had no formal education, and only 17% completed high school or higher. Female respondents were younger and less educated than males. The average household size was over six members, with 71% identifying as medium-income and 22% as poor. Nearly half reported agriculture as their primary income source, while 23% relied on remittances. About 70% were general CFUG members with an average membership of 11 years.
Respondents rated forest products and services highly, with over 90% considering firewood, timber, and fodder essential. Over 95% valued wildlife habitat and clean environments as very important. Medicinal values received relatively lower importance. About two-thirds acknowledged that resin tapping creates local jobs, and 86% agreed that it contributes to community development and supports local schools. However, over 75% believed that resin tapping leads to increased tree mortality, fire-prone forests, and water scarcity. Over 60% reported that the tapping process is not adequately regulated, leading to over-tapping and ecological damage.
Statistical tests revealed that perceptions of negative impacts varied by well-being status and education level. Medium-income and poor respondents were more likely to agree that resin tapping increases tree mortality, wildfire risk, and water scarcity. Less educated respondents placed greater emphasis on these negative effects. Over 60% noted that forest conditions have deteriorated since resin tapping began, with increased tree mortality and fire risk. Only 10% believed that forests are well-managed, and 20% thought conditions remained unchanged.
Approximately 85% of respondents identified increased wildfire risk as a critical challenge, while over two-thirds cited reduced water availability due to Chirpine forests. Over 84% believed that the lack of broadleaved forests has reduced interest in community forestry. Structural equation modeling showed that socio-demographic factors such as gender and well-being status were negatively associated with perceived adverse impacts, while age was positively linked. Male and wealthier respondents were less likely to perceive negative effects, while older respondents were more likely to do so. Respondents with irrigated land were more likely to perceive benefits, and active CFUG members were more likely to view resin tapping favorably.
Respondents who believed resin tapping caused fires were less likely to perceive benefits, while those who experienced water scarcity were more likely to perceive adverse effects. Those who viewed forests as unmanaged after tapping were more likely to report negative impacts. Respondents who preferred replacing pine forests with broadleaved plantations were less likely to see benefits and more likely to perceive harm. Those who valued commodity benefits such as fuelwood and fodder were less likely to view resin tapping positively.
The study found that residents in far-western Nepal recognize the benefits of resin tapping in supporting local employment and funding community development projects such as water supply, road construction, and schools. However, most respondents strongly believed that resin tapping leads to increased tree mortality, fire-prone forests, and water scarcity. While limited research directly links resin tapping to water availability, many respondents believe it has negatively impacted water resources. Previous studies have shown that resin tapping affects timber quality and increases tree mortality. Further biophysical research is needed to explore the relationship between resin tapping, tree growth, water regulation, and fire risk.
Although NTFPs are essential for many rural livelihoods, their contribution to poverty alleviation remains questionable. Poor and less educated forest users experience more pronounced negative impacts, while wealthier households are less affected. Community development activities such as road construction and water supply may benefit wealthier households more, as they often hold decision-making roles in CFUGs. Most respondents expressed concerns about forest conditions after tapping, noting increased tree mortality and fire risk. Excessive resin extraction makes trees vulnerable to climate stress and fire. Over the past 20 years, rising temperatures and lower precipitation have increased forest fire frequency in Nepal. Pine forests are more prone to fire than broadleaved woodlands, and tapped trees are especially vulnerable due to open resin canals.
Although Nepal introduced resin tapping guidelines in 2007 to regulate the process and minimize ecological damage, recent studies highlight poor implementation and lack of monitoring. High concentrations of stimulus acid mixtures are often used to speed up resin extraction, harming tree physiology and increasing mortality. Revising and enforcing these guidelines should be a priority for regulatory agencies to ensure the sustainability of resin production and Chirpine forests.
Interestingly, CFUG membership and active participation in community forestry activities were associated with more positive perceptions of resin tapping. Community forestry in Nepal is considered one of the most successful participatory resource management models globally. CFUGs invest resin revenues in community development and forest management. Active involvement in these activities provides opportunities for social engagement and better dissemination of information about resin-related benefits.
Most forest users expressed a preference for replacing pine forests with broadleaved plantations due to higher fodder and fuelwood values and better water provisioning. Pine forests are associated with groundwater depletion due to higher evapotranspiration rates compared to broadleaved forests. Pine needles inhibit undergrowth, reducing grazing value. Although pine replacement is preferred, the ecological feasibility and economic costs of replacing pine stands in steep mountainous regions may be prohibitive.